Dear all,
Vocational education and training (VET) is situated a bit on the fence of the formal system of education. Different from the formal educational system it is less geared to move the learner up the educational ladder than in providing employable or marketable skills. This is, in many countries, reflected in the role of industries in setting up the curriculum. Consequently, assessment in VET is less aimed at ranking (or selecting those who are allowed to move to the higher echelon of the educational ladder) than at checking that a standard of skills requirements is met.
This main topic will introduce (i) issues and questions pertaining to VET; (ii) cite some examples; and (iii) provide you with a list of resources to start with.
Issues and questions
There are a number of issues. One, especially discussed by Haas (1996) is the problem of 'articulation' which means the way VET is situated with respect to the formal education system. Often those having chosen a VET track have difficulties to move into higher education. As a consequence many bright young people are turned away from taking up technical training in spite of the important role technical skills play in economic development and, instead, compete for academic places even if employment opportunities are scarce.
The articulation problem is also due to the fact that vocational training in many countries has not in the same way been accepted as a public responsibility. Given that companies and employers are directly profiting from the skills of trained workers they are expected to play a role and are invited to shape the respective curricula. This has led to a number of organizational models of private public partnerships (e.g. twinning schools and companies in the mining reagions in Zimbabwe).
A number of further issues are mentioned:
Paricipatory curriculum development
Very often industry is involved in setting the professional standards. One method used in Canada is DACUM (developing a curriculum, see frame). In other contexts participatory approaches are used in identifying learning needs of specific audiences. The curriculum developed for and with young women farmers by the Bangladesh Open University (BOU) is an example of participatory skills development (cf. Dunbar, 2002, p. 33).
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DACUM (Developing A CUrriculuM)
is a Canadian approach to curriculum development whereby experienced
workers analysze their occupation and identify relevant skills. The development
proceeds in two steps: (i) identify the General Areas of Competence (GACs);
and then (ii) identify for each GAC the respective set of skills required.
DACUM is said to be a widely applied dependable tool for curriculum development
in VET. (cf. Dunbar, 2002, p. 36)
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Competency-based assessment
There are two approaches to assessment which may be illustrated by the following simple example. The sports master may ask his/her class to run 100 meters. He may approach the assessment in two manners. (i) a pass/fail manner by specifying that all runners must run the 100 m under 14 seconds; or he may base his grading on a Normal Distribution giving an A the best quartile, a B to the second, a C to the third and a Fail to the fourth quartile.
The second method is normally used in education where the aim is often to rank students rather to ensure the attainment of a minimum standard. The frustrating thing of the second approach for the students is that even if all work hard and do well, the method will not allow all to have an A. Instead minor differences may lead to different ratings. The first method is similar to competency based assessment: it specifies skills requirements and, if they are met, it is a pass.
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Learning Objects: The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) has set up a Learning Technology Standards Committee which has defined learning objects as 'any entity, digital or non-digital which can be used, re-used or referenced during technology supported learning'. (cf. Dunbar, 2002, p. 38) |
Skills can be linked to learning objects which means that competency based assessment is facilitated by the identification of learning objects.
Technologies in teaching VET
The media equivalence hypothesis suggests that you can teach effectively in any medium. However, many types of training require visual cues. Obviously a video cassette can better illustrate how to mould bricks that audio or print could do. The effectiveness depends on the appropriate mix of technologies (including hands on face to face training). Video-cassettes and audiographics are useful because they include visual displays and, other than television, are less transient. You can in case of comprehension failure, re-view your videocassete.
| TAFE (Technical and Further Education) in a joint
partnership with the viticulture industry produced a Viticulture and Wine
Studies training programme. Theory delivery comines print, classroom sessions
and CD-ROMs. Hands on training is in the vineyards under industry supervisors. The programms is a training program which is part of the employment. Win-win: the industry gets trained staff, the students of the program get employment. This is due to the expanding situation of the South Australian viticultural industry (cf. Hampton, 2002, 88). |
In some cases where at least stand-alone computers are available interactive CD-Roms may be quite helpful.
Case studies
Case 1 : ICAR and NO
Description: The Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR) disposes
of 281 agricultural learning centers - the Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK). The National
Open Schools (NOS) has teamed up with ICAR to develop certificate study programs
using the KVK as learning centers. Courses include plant protection, water management,
etc. Hands-on skills training takes place at the KVK learning centers. (Cf.
Calder in Mishra & Bartram, 2002, p. 13)
Comment: ICAR commissions the development and delivery of courses. Hands
on training is 'workplace-based'.
Case 2: UNHCR and COL
Description: UNHCR commissions COL to develop courses for UNHCR personnel.
Course material is print-based and student support by e-mail. Tutoring is done
locally. Training the tutors is done by videoconferencing. (Cf. Calder in Mishra
& Bartram, 2002, pp. 13-14)
Comment: The model allows to train UNHCR personnel and support them in
case they are teaching.
Case 3: Microsoft and LaSalle University
Description: LaSalle University (Louisiana, USA) is contracted by Microsoft
to develop online courses to help Microsoft personnel to upgrade their computer
skills. The course contributes to promotion within Microsoft.
Comment: Big companies can commission the development and delivery of
tailored courses for their personnel; SMEs (small or medium sized enterprises)
cannot. In their case it is sometimes the government who commissions skills
development for specific brances of industry.
Case 4: Unext and Columbia University, LSE and Stanford
Description: Unext is an online business school. It commissions courses
from brand name institutions like Columbia, LSE and Stanford and delivers the
courses itself.
Comment: Unext profits from reduced development costs and the prestige
of the brand names. (The example has little to do with VET but illustrates how
synergies can be harvested from cooperation.)
Case 5: Government of New Zealand and TOPNZ
Description: The government of New Zealand in 1999 set up a scheme for
human resource development in SMEs. Courses include (i) starting a small business;
(ii) starting an export venture; (iii) running an SME; (iv) women in SMEs. Courses
were developed and delivered by The Open Polytehnic of New Zealand (TOPNZ).
About 3000 people studied the courses until 2002. (Scales, 2002, pp.129-130).
Comment: As said earlier, only big companies can commission the development/delivery
of tailormade courses. Governments, however, may be well-advised to invest in
the upgrading of skills in SMEs.
Case 6: Government of India and IGNOU
Description: Indira Gandhi Open University (IGNOU) involves medical colleges
and district hospitals to offer training courses to medical doctors in child
health. Senior doctors supervise and mentor four to six students a hospital.
23 medical colleges and 140 district hospitals are involved. (Goel, 2002, p.
54).
Comment: The example shows a potentially very cost-efficient way of skills
upgrading. DE is appropriate not least because of its 'seven mile boots': its
ability to reach out to learners in remote areas. The efficiency lies in the
configuration which makes use of local hospitals and medical colleges as learning
centers and using senior personnel for supervision and mentoring. An example
of traing hands-on skills in a workplace environment.
Case 7: BP and Hull College of Further Education/Cleveland
Open Learning Unit
Description: Hull College of Further Education (UK) buys a distance education
a three year course in 'process plant operations' developed by Cleveland Open
Learning Unit. Hull Colleges delivers the course to employees of the local BP
Chemical Processing Plant. The course is print based and Hull College tutors
provide weekly tutorials onsite.(Cf. Calder in Mishra & Bartram, 2002, p.
15)
Comment: A case of workplace-based hands on training.
Case 8: Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) and Scitech
Educational
Description: The Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) bought in material
from Scitech Educational to upgrade skills of lab technicians at universities
and secondary schools. The needs specification was done by the University Grants
Committee and funding came from COL. (Cf. Calder in Mishra & Bartram, 2002,
p. 17 and )
Comment: OUSL takes on the delivery/tutoring of the course taking material
developed by Scitech Educational. Hands-on skills are conducted either institution
or workplace-based.
Case 9: DAE and BOU
Description: The Department of Agricultureal Extension (DAE) is a government
service which set up in cooperation with the Bangladesh Open University a program
for women farmers in Bangladesh. The curriculum was developed in a particpatory
manner. BOU developed a trainer handbook for the DEA extension workers and study
material for conductiong the teaching sessions. The implementation included
the identification and training of female leaders being in charge of 20 women
in a given community. They held sessions twice a week in the mid-afternoon.The
material included instructional modules, posters, flip charts as well as instructional
video. Funding came also from the Grameen Bank. (cf. Dunbar, 2002, p. 33; Hampton
& Bartram, 2002 p. 67)
Comment: Beneficiaries are DAE since the material strengthend DAE officers
effectiveness. Main beneficieries, however, were the young women farmers who
received effective training. Special emphasis is given the mode of curriculum
development which was done in a particpatory manner.
Case 10: Government
of India and IGNOU
Description: The governemnt decided to upgrade skills in an important
industrial sector, the leather industry (1.4 million workers). IGNOU developed
courses, skills training was workplace-based and assessment comptency based.
Material included print and audio tape apart from the demonstratio-based training
at the workers tannery. (cf. Dunbar, 2002, p. 35; Hampton & Bartram, 2002
p. 69)
Comment: Here the government took the lead in upgrading skills in an
important industrial branch. It involved the government, industries and the
DE providers rogether with the tannery workers as main stakeholders.
Case 11: IGNOU
Description: IGNOU offers Bachelor of Information Technology. For student
support telecenters have been established. Techologies include: live satellite-based
teleconferencing supported through CD-ROM; video lectures , practical lab sessions,
Internet browsing; online interactive chat. (cf. Goel, 2002, p. 59)
Comment: This is a case where hands on training is institution-based,
at IGNOUs own learning centers. Course development and delivery is fully undertaken
by IGNOU.
Case 12: TAFE
Description: Onkaparinga Institute of TAFE (Technical and Further Education)
in South Australiaprovides traing for 'transport engineering'. Courses include.
Earthmoving and industrial mechanics; (ii) agricalural mechanic; (iii) road
and transport mechanic. The material integrates text, audio, video etc. On top
of the study material there are four blocks of two-week workshops.
Comment: A combination of summer schools and CD-ROMs for stand alone
computers.
Case 13: TAFE and Pinnaroo Learning Centre
Description: In a sparesly inhabited area the local council and TAFE
with funding from the Australian government cooperated to set up a community
telecenter. The center serves as a network hub for access to the Internet.
Comment: This is an example for a community-based center which is used
as a TAFE learning center, as a resource for the community and point of access
for local enterprises.
Case 14: Industry and TAFE
Description: TAFE (Technical and Further Education) in a joint partnership
with the viticulture industry produced a Viticulture and Wine Studies training
programme. Theory delivery comines print, classroom sessions and CD-ROMs. Hands
on training is in the vineyards under industry supervisors.
Comment: The programms is a training program which is part of the employment.
Win-win: the industry gets trained staff, the students of the program get employment.
This is due to the expanding situation of the South Australian viticultural
industry (cf. Hampton, 2002, 88).
Case 15: Spencer Institute of TAFE
Description: The institute conducts a 'Community services and health
program'. Printed material is posted to learners at home; support is provided
by fax, phone and email. At the Learning Resource Centers books, videos and
audiotapes are available. Practical skills are demonstrated on videos. An induction
at the beginning and summative assessment at the end is doen on campus.
Comment: Practical training mostly at a distance; induction and assessment
on campus (i.e. isnstitution based); Learning Resource Centers offer only additional
resources (cf. Hampton, 2002, 89).
Literature
Haas (1996) discusses the articulation issue. Related to this (though not as sections in an edited book) are the cases studies for Viet Nam, Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand. More specific to distance education is the COL resource edited by Mishra and Bartram. This should be the core reading and starting point for those who want to specialize on this topic.
I think this provides a good base for you and a starting point for those who want to specialize in this area.
Kind regards
Thomas