INTRODUCTION

I. Purpose

This tutorial provides you with information on two key aspects of APA that you are expected to use in the OMDE program:

• quoting from, and citing, print and online materials in the written text of your Assignment, and
• preparing an appropriate Reference List that supports the citations used in the text.

Students are expected to follow all APA guidelines in preparing assignments unless the professor indicates otherwise. This tutorial is designed to help with a core set of fundamentals, not to cover all APA issues.

II. Resources you need to have to use this tutorial effectively

This tutorial is based on the guidelines provided in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.) -- ISBN: 1557987904. You should purchase a copy for use throughout the OMDE if you have not already done so as it is UMUC policy that APA standards be used. You may order the 2001 Manual from APA Web site at http://www.apastyle.org/pubmanual.html. You may also go to a different portion of that site to verify APA guidelines regarding electronic references at http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html.

III. Outline

This tutorial has three sections. The first, and the longest, relates to citing resources and preparing your Reference list. The second section contains answers to FAQs and links the answers to appropriate sections in the APA manual. The third section is a sample Reference List.

TIP regarding the Reference List: Keep in mind that only those sources that you cite directly within the body of your paper should appear in your Reference List. If you want to include a separate list of books, journals, or online materials that you used as background reading but did not actually cite in your paper, you can include these under the heading Additional Works Consulted.

PART ONE: CITING SOURCES & PREPARING YOUR REFERENCE LIST

This section deals with (I) online and paper books, (II) online and paper journals and (III) communications by phone, e-mail or in listservs and Tycho conferences, and a variety of "other" online sources not covered in I and II. Please look for the special Notes after some of the examples; they indicate details that students have commonly missed in past Assignments.

For your convenience, we've highlighted the sections of the APA manual upon which Part One is based. The conventions that apply to both print and electronic materials are given in (a); where there is an issue unique to electronic sources, it is given in (b). Some examples are fictional to illustrate the point and facilitate comparison between print and online conventions.

A. Quoting or Citing Resources in the text of your Assignment

(i) Direct quotations from books, journals, etc.: pp. 117 -121, #3.34 - #3.39
a) print and electronic sources: #3.34 - #3.38
b) electronic sources: #3.39 and http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html.

(ii) Referencing books, journals, etc. when no direct quote is used: pp. 207-214, #3.94 - #3.103
a) print and electronic sources: 3.94 - 3.103
b) electronic sources: 3.101 and http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html.

B. Preparing your Reference List: pp. 223-231, #4.07 - #4.15

a) print and electronic sources: pp. 223-231, #4.07 - #4.14 and
- example 2, p. 240 (dealing with journal volume and number),
- example 22, p. 247 (how to cite secondary vs. primary sources), and
- example 29, p. 250 (editions of books)
b) electronic sources: p, 231, #4.15 and http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html.

I. Paper Books or Online Documents

Here are guidelines for citing paper books and online documents with one author, two or three authors, for citing a chapter in an edited book and for how each of them would be described in the Reference List. All page and section numbers relate to the APA Manual, 5th ed. You should notice patterns and similarities in the way APA handles various issues.

A. Paper Book or Online Report with One Author

(i) Quoting from or citing resources in text [See p. 118, #3.34 and p. 120, #3.39]

• Barak (1982) notes that "program approval responsibilities are important" (p. 24). [Note: The period goes outside the quotation marks and the brackets; it is at the very end of the sentence.]
• Barak (1999) reports that "accurate statistics are not available" (¶ 88). [Notes: (1) The period goes outside the quotation marks and the brackets; it is at the very end of the sentence. (2) If this quotation were taken from partway through the original sentence, ellipsis points would have to be used; see p. 119, #3.38 and p. 293, #5.13 in the APA manual.]
• According to Barak (1982), program approval responsibilities have evolved hand-in-hand with state higher education agencies themselves.[Note: When you are paraphrasing an author, you do not need to give a page number, although you may if you wish. A page number has to be used only if you are making a direct quotation, as in the first of these three examples.]
• Perhaps the segment in which external constituencies have played the most active and visible role in new program development is that of the community colleges, which have always had a much heavier reliance on public opinion, market research, and feasibility studies for the initiation of new programs (Barak, 1982).

TIP: If page numbers are not given in electronic sources, give the paragraph number for a direct quotation from an unpaginated electronic book or article. Say "para", use the symbol ¶ or give the section when citing a quotation [see p. 120, #3.39]. [Note: Professional, peer-reviewed journals tend to provide a paragraph count because they know that professional readers will want to use a convention such as APA and will need information that lets them quote their colleagues in accordance with standards in the profession. Be sure that you know how to use your word processor's equivalent of "Reveal Codes" to get the paragraph numbers!]

(ii) Preparing your Reference List [See p. 223, #4.07]

Barak, R. J. (1982). Program review in higher education: Within and without. Boulder, CO: National Center for Higher Education Management Systems. [Note: The abbreviations for all US states are on p. 218; Canadian provinces are spelled out in full as shown on p. 230.]

Barak, R.J. (1999). Program review in elementary education: An update. Washington, DC: Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved December 13, 2002 from http://www.ces.com. [Note: The phrase [Electronic version] is not needed for any online sources; that is an old, outdated APA standard that should not be followed now.]

B. Paper Book or Online Document with Two or more Authors
Note: Joint or multiple authors must be credited. It is unacceptable, in both the text and the Reference list to credit only Moore, M.G. as the source when using the book written by Moore, M.G., & Kearsley, G. The error of citing only Moore occurs frequently and must be avoided.

(i) Quoting from or citing resources in text [See p. 208, #3.95]

• Kaplin and Lee (1995) stated that "the significance of these regulations cannot be overestimated" (p. 197). [Note: Do not use quotation marks when just one or two words are involved unless their usage is so unique to an author(s) that quotation marks are required. Try to avoid creating a paragraph full of one or two word quotations, each of which has to be referenced.] Note also that "and" is used in this format of a citation.
• Kaplin, Lee and Smith (1999) report that "elementary education laws are different" (Conclusion). [Note: This format is needed for an online source because there are no page or paragraph numbers; if they were available, they would be used instead of using the section or chapter subtitle.]
• Kaplin and Lee (1995) stated that New Jersey's program approval requirement did not seem to violate Shelton College's institutional autonomy or freedom of religion.
• As universities established by the state constitution, these institutions generally enjoyed more freedom and autonomy than those public institutions established by statute (Kaplin & Lee, 1995). [Note: & is used if the joint names are given in brackets at the end of the sentence.]

Note: The term et al. is used for a reference in the text only (1) to cite three, four or five authors for the second and subsequent times a work is referenced or (2) anytime there are six or more authors.

Roberts, Brindley and Spronk (1998) believe ...... [the first time in any particular paragraph]
Roberts et al. (1998) further argue .... [the second time in the same paragraph]

Punctuation is a period only after "al." because "et" is a complete word meaning "and", whereas "al." is an abbreviation of "alia" meaning "others".

(ii) Preparing your Reference List [See p. 223-225, #4.07 & 4.08]

Kaplin, W. A., & Lee, B. A. (1995). The law of higher education (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. [Note: W. A., has a comma after the A. even though there are only two authors.]

Kaplin, W.A., Lee, B.A., & Smith, J.J. (1999). The law of elementary education. San Francisco, CA: University of California. Retrieved December 1, 2002 from http://www.sfu.edu. [Note: The phrase "from the World Wide Web" should not be used as that is a dated APA convention that is no longer valid.]

C. Chapter in an Edited Book

(i) Direct quotations from or citing resources in Text [See pp. 207-208, #3.94 & 3.95]

• As McGuinness (1999) explained, "Many state coordinating boards have lessened their procedural controls on individual colleges and universities" (p. 77).
• McGuinness (1999) concluded that this level of diversity is also reflected in the fact that 22 states (including Puerto Rico) have consolidated governing boards and 24 states (including Washington, D.C.) have coordinating boards.
• The states have always provided the legal framework for the existence of both the public and private higher education sectors - including institutional charters, statutory laws, and in cases such as Michigan and California, even the state constitution (McGuinness, 1999).

(ii) Preparing your Reference List [See p. 223, #4.07; and pp. 230-231, #4.14]

McGuinness, A. C., Jr. (1999). The states and higher education. In P. G. Altbach, R. O. Berdahl, & P. J. Gumport (Eds.), American higher education in the 21st century: Social, political and economic challenges (pp. 190-218). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. [Notes: (1) There are no single quotes around the title of the chapter, and (2) the author's name comes before his/her initials but the editors' name comes after their initials.]

TIP: If the electronic source does not give page numbers, give the number of paragraphs in the Reference List to tell your reader how long the chapter is. If necessary, count the number of paragraphs yourself. No one has yet found guidance in APA about how to count paragraphs, so use "common sense". The goal in providing a paragraph count is to indicate the length of the work: a short piece of 7-9 paragraphs or a substantial work of 57-60 paragraphs.

McGuinness, A. C., Jr. (1999). The states and higher education. In P. G. Altbach, R. O. Berdahl, & P. J. Gumport (Eds.), American higher education in the 21st century: Social, political and economic challenges (111 para). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Retrieved January 3, 2003 from http://www.umuc.edu/books

Notes: (1) This is an imaginary reference to illustrate the point about giving the number of paragraphs if pages are not available; see how the two citations are in the same format except for the way in which the length of the piece is given. (2) The URL is not underlined! URLs in a Reference list should not be active hyperlinks.]

II. Online [see DE Journals Link in Course Content] and Paper Journals

Here are guidelines for citing journal articles with one author and multiple authors in your Reference List and for quoting or citing them in the body of your Assignment! You should notice patterns and similarities in the way APA handles various issues as they relate to both journals and books.

D. Journal Article with One Author

(i) Quoting from or citing resources in text [See pp. 207-208, #3.94]

• In her discussion, Jones (1997) acknowledges that the categories cannot be viewed in isolation and must "therefore be considered interactive and connected to one another" (p. 379). [Note: This format would apply to both online and paper versions if the online version was paginated. If the online version was not paginated, then you would use the paragraph symbol or section subheading as described above in I.]
• Jones (1997) characterized the focus of her study as seeking to understand the concept of identity as women actually experience it in their lives rather than as external categories that are imposed upon them by others.

(ii) Preparing your Reference List [See p. 223, #4.07]

Jones, S. R. (1997). Voices of identity and difference: A qualitative exploration of the multiple dimensions of identity development in women college students. Journal of College Student Development, 38(4), 376-385. [Note: As in C (ii) above, there are no single quotes around the title of the article.]

Note: If this were an online journal, you would add retrieval information in the format Retrieved month, day, year, from source.

Jones, S. R. (1997). Voices of identity and difference: A qualitative exploration of the multiple dimensions of identity development in women college students. Journal of College Student Development, 38(4), 376-385. Retrieved April 3, 2002 from http://www.jcsd.com.

TIP: Frustratingly, APA requires us to capitalize only the first letter of the first word in the title of the article (and the first letter of the first word after the colon), but mandates that the first letter of each word (except ones such as "of") in a journal title must be capitalized.

E. Online or Paper Journal Article with Multiple Authors

(i) Quoting from and citing resources in text [See pp. 208-209, #3.95]

• However, DeSousa, Smith and Kuh (1996) note that "few researchers have actually attempted to compare the experiences of students at PWIs and HBIs using the same measures and variables across both types of institutions" (p. 109). [Note: This format would apply to both online and paper versions if the online version was paginated. If the online version was not paginated, then you would use the paragraph symbol or section subheading as described above in I.]
• However, few researchers have actually attempted to compare the experiences of students at PWIs and HBIs using the same measures and variables across both types of institutions (DeSousa & Kuh, 1996).
• However, DeSousa and Kuh (1996) note that few researchers have actually attempted to compare the experiences of students at PWIs and HBIs using the same measures and variables across both types of institutions.

(ii) Preparing your Reference List [See pp. 223-224, #4.07 and #4.08]

DeSousa, D. J., Smith, J.J. & Kuh, G. D. (1996). Does institutional racial composition make a difference in what black students gain from college? Journal of College Student Development, 37(3), 257-267.

Note: If this were an online journal, you would add retrieval information in the format Retrieved month, day, year, from source.

DeSousa, D. J., Smith, J.J. & Kuh, G. D. (1996). Does institutional racial composition make a difference in what black students gain from college? Journal of College Student Development, 37(3), 257-267. Retrieved April 3, 2002 from http://www.jcsd.com

Note: The term et al. is never used in the Reference list unless there are more than six authors.

III. Other Online Sources

F. Personal Communications (p. 214, #3.102)
If you communicate by telephone, in person, by e-mail or in non-archived discussion groups with an author or colleague, you may cite them in your Assignment, but it is not appropriate to include them in your Reference List.

M. G. Moore (personal communication, January 3, 2002) indicated that .....

G. Other OMDE Courses
Professors in OMDE may vary in the degree to which they accept quotations from threaded discussions Tycho Conferences, so check with your professor before using such a source. If your professor accepts this type of material in an assignment, here is how to cite it in your Reference List [see p. 278, APA manual].

Holmberg, B. (2002, June 6). Reflections on the empathy approach. [Module 2, Thread 14, Message 10.3.4]. Posted to http:www.tychousa.umuc.edu/OMDE 601/0206/9040.

H. Database (#4.15, p. 231; also p. 257 on ERIC)

If you want to use a journal that you found in the UMUC [or other institutional] databases, please follow the protocol for citing electronic journals in Part Two above, but note that you cannot give a URL that takes the reader directly to your article. A journal article citation from a database would therefore look like this:

DeSousa, D. J., & Kuh, G. D. (1996). Does institutional racial composition make a difference in what black students gain from college? Journal of College Student Development, 37(3), 257-267. Retrieved September 3, 2001, from Catchpole database [or whatever the formal name of the database is].

Note: The name of the journal has to be given, not just the name of the database.

If you are using a reading from another OMDE course, treat the course as though it were a database and cite it as follows.

DeSousa, D. J., & Kuh, G. D. (1996). Does institutional racial composition make a difference in what black students gain from college? Journal of College Student Development, 37(3), 257-267. Retrieved September 3, 2001, from Required Readings, OMDE 601.

I. Government reports, Conference proceedings, etc.

These 'miscellaneous' sources are covered in the APA manual, pp. 241 to 281. The fastest way to find what you need is to use the Index that starts on p. 413.

PART TWO: FAQs

What do I do if I want to use a quotation that I found in another book? (#22, p. 247)

If you are reading an author such as Nipper who quotes another author, such as Marshall McLuhan's 1964 classic Understanding media, and you decide to use the same McLuhan quote that Nipper has used (sorry if this sounds cumbersome), you can include only Nipper in your Reference List. You may not include McLuhan in your Reference List, because APA permits us to include only the primary sources (books, journals, etc.) that we ourselves have read. Similarly, if Peters cites Holmberg, you may include only Peters in your Reference list; the examples are imaginary.

In the written part of your assignment you would say something like "Nipper quotes McLuhan as saying that 'the medium is the message' (1989, p. 67)", giving the page in Nipper where the McLuhan quote is found. You would put only Nipper in your Reference List.

Nipper and McLuhan are called secondary and primary sources, respectively. Primary sources are preferred over secondary ones if at all possible; e.g., go find the actual US government report on the digital divide instead of quoting someone else's quote from the report.

"Peters (2000) notes that Holmberg believes in the imporance of guided didactic conversation, quoting him to the effect that 'such conversation is critical to learner success' (p. 112)". You give the page number in Peters where Holmberg is quoted and you put only Peters in the Reference List. Peters and Holmberg are called secondary and primary sources respectively.

What do I do about online journals with no page numbers?

Ideally, APA-compliant journals [and reports] provide paragraph numbers for us to cite if no page numbers are provided. So, in the text, you just say "Smith (1999) notes that 'smaller is better' (para. 10)". And, your reference list says

Smith, J.R. (1999). What is the value of distance? Journal of Distance Education, 65(3), 44 paragraphs. Retrieved January 4, 2001 from http://journal.judy.11.6.html

If no paragraph counts are provided, I'm sorry to say that APA asks you to count by hand in order to quote correctly in the text and to give the reader an idea of how long the article is in the References list. However, on p. 120, APA (2001) does allow the following short-cut for in-text citations "If there are headings in the document and neither paragraph nor page numbers are visible, cite the heading and the number of the ¶ following it to direct the reader to the location of the quoted material". For example, "small is beautiful (Roberts, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 10)". is also APA-compliant.

The "bottom line" is that, as a professional courtesy, APA asks us to communicate clearly with one another regarding where we found the quotes that we use in-text and how long a piece of material we have cited in the References.

Do I have to give the page number if I am paraphrasing material, not quoting it directly?

You do not have to give a page number unless you are using a direct quote; you do have to credit the author whose ideas you are using though. So, save some keystrokes and visual clutter and don't add page numbers unless you are making a direct quotation. Note: This advice may seem a bit different from the APA manual because in previous semesters, students have given pages numbers so often in short paragraphs with no direct quotations that the writing style is choppy and hard to read.

Do I have to give the year of a book each time I mention it? (top p. 208)

No. After the first reference in a paragraph, do not repeat the year for a source that is referenced several times in the same paragraph. Look at these two examples: (1) a cluttered way to write that "violates" APA, and (2) a simpler way to write that respects APA guidelines. [Note: This principle is the same as citing three or more authors; you give all three the first time and use et al. in all subsequent times in the same paragraph.] You must, however, repeat the date the first time it is used again in a different paragraph.

(1) Poor/violates APA

Smith (1994) compares the attitudes of 94 XYZ students taking the same post-secondary course, either on-site with the teacher or remotely via audiographic conferencing. Attitudes measured by Smith (1994) included: opinion of the course value, information retention, course defects, and self-expression allowed. Smith (1994) reports, "Neither the use of the technology nor the remoteness of the learners seems to suggest significant differences" (p. 14) in attitude between the on-site and remote students.

Jones (1995) describes the widespread use of audio technologies in DE, supported by high rates of phone access in most developed countries. Jones (1995) concurs with the XYZ research findings of student satisfaction with learning via audioconferencing (Smith, 1994).

(2) Much Better/Respects APA

Smith (1994) compares the attitudes of 94 XYZ students taking the same post-secondary course, either on-site with the teacher or remotely via audiographic conferencing. Attitudes measured included: opinion of the course value, information retention, course defects, and self-expression allowed. He reports that, "Neither the use of the technology nor the remoteness of the learners seems to suggest significant differences" (p. 14) in attitude between the on-site and remote students.

Jones (1995) describes the widespread use of audio technologies in DE, supported by high rates of phone access in most developed countries. He references several studies whose results of strong student satisfaction with learning by audioconferencing are similar to Smith's (1994) results.

TIP: The general principle is that your writing should not be chopped up by multiple "(Smith, 1994) and Jones (1995)" type phrases. Try to edit your work so that it flows as smoothly as possible. You'll find you can follow APA rules and still have a smooth writing style. Don't over-attribute everything!

What IS the APA rule about using capital letters? (#3.13, p. 95)

Annoyingly, for book, chapter or journal article titles, APA wants only the first word of the title (and the first word after a colon) in CAPS. However, APA wants all words in a journal's name to start with a CAP. Note: You must reproduce journal names accurately and exactly as they are printed on the journal's masthead, i.e., EDUCAUSE Quarterly not Educause Quarterly. Another note: Typically, Internet is left capitalized as are all other formal names.

Can I create hyperlinks in an essay that follows APA guidelines?

No. As noted above, URLs should not be underlined in the Reference List (see p. 231, #4.15). Also, if you do insert a "generic" URL in the body of the text, it should not be underlined and no entry should be made in the Reference List. For example, you might write a sentence in the body of the text saying: "Kids play is a great site (http://www.kidsplay.org)." [See the FAQ section, p. 3 of the online APA guidelines referenced in Introduction, II.] This should happen rarely since most assignments look for specific references to the published DE literature and research.

Note: If your software underlines "no matter what", tell me this in a footnote at the end of your Reference List. The note demonstrates that you know the proper APA rule and I won't waste time giving you feedback about something you can't change.

What do I do if an element of a reference is missing, especially an element in an electronic reference? (#3.97, pp. 210-211)

The best thing to do is to show whatever elements are there. However, to show that you recognize that you should have found something, you should do the following:

Anonymous. (n.d.) Technology in distance education. New York: Routledge.

Note: One of the ways to evaluate the quality of sources, particularly electronic sources, is to see if they provide all the information needed to cite the source properly. If there is no information about the publication date, for example, how do you know if the information is up-to-date? The timeliness of content is particularly important in technology, where key features can change rapidly and regularly. If information is missing, you should seriously consider whether you want to use that material in your work.

What do I do if the author is an institution or a consortium? And if they've published their own material? (#3.96, pp. 209-210)

You could show the reference as follows:

International Consortium. (1994). How to videoconference. New York: Author.

PART THREE: SAMPLE REFERENCE LIST

Bates, A. W. (Tony). (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. New York: Routledge.

Bullen, M. (1998). Participation and critical thinking in online university distance education. Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l'enseignement à distance, 13(2), 109 paragraphs. Retrieved March 27, 2001 from http://cade.icaap.org/vol13.2/bullen.html

Burge, E. J., & Roberts, J. M. (1998). Classrooms with a difference: Facilitating learning on the information highway (2nd ed.). Montréal, Québec, Canada: Chenelière/McGraw-Hill.

Chen, Y. -J., & Willits, F. (1998). A path analysis of the concepts in Moore's 'Theory of Transactional Distance' in a videoconferencing learning environment. Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l'enseignement à distance, 13(2), 42 paragraphs. Retrieved March 27, 2001 from http://cade.icaap.org/vol13.2/chen.html

Haughey, M., & Anderson, T. (1998). Networked learning: The pedagogy of the Internet. Montréal, Québec, Canada: Chenelière/McGraw-Hill.

Holmberg, B. (1995a, June). The evolution of the character and practice of distance education. Open Learning,10(2), 31 paragraphs. Retrieved September 10, 2000 from http://www.uni-oldenburg.de/zef/cde/found/holmbg95.htm

Holmberg, B. (1995b). Theory and practice of distance education (2nd rev. ed.). London: Routledge.

MacKnight, C. B. (2000). Teaching critical thinking through online discussions. EDUCAUSE Quarterly, 24(4), 38-41. Retrieved March 3, 2001 from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/EQM0048.pdf

Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Nayman, I. (1999). Lessons from a videoconferenced course. CAUSE/EFFECT, 22(3), 29 paragraphs. Retrieved March 27, 2001 from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/html/cem9930.html

Nipper, S. (1989). Third generation distance learning and computer conferencing. In R. Mason & A. Kaye (Eds.), Mindweave: Communication, computers and distance education (pp. 63-73). Oxford: Pergamon Press. Retrieved January 30, 2001 from http://tychousa1.umuc.edu/OMDE603/0102/9040/

O'Rourke, J. (2000, Winter). Print. In E.J. Burge (Ed.), New directions for adult and continuing education: The strategic use of learning technologies (pp. 49-57). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Retrieved February 1, 2001 from Reserved Readings, OMDE603.

Peters, O. (2000, June). Digital learning environments: New possibilities and opportunities. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 1(1), 1-19. Retrieved March 25, 2001 from http://www.irrodl.org/content/v1.1/otto.pdf

Roberts, J. M., Brindley, J. E., & Spronk, B. (1998). Learning on the information highway: A learner's guide to the technologies. Montréal, Québec, Canada: Chenelière/McGraw-Hill.

Thompson, G. (1994). How can correspondence-based distance education be improved? A survey of attitudes of students who are not well disposed toward correspondence study. Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l'enseignement à distance, 9(1), 22 paragraphs. Retrieved March 29, 2001 from http://cade.athabascau.ca/vol9.1/11_thompson.html