Example 2

Readings: Introduction and Overview

Brindley, J.E. (1995). Learner services: Theory and practice. In Distansutbildning i itveckling, Rapport nr. 11 (pp. 23-34). Umea, Sweeden: University of Umea.

The author defines student support services and describes their status in modern ODL practice. She makes the case that service interventions not only have the potential to help distance learners overcome difficulties so they complete their courses, but when thoughtfully administered, they enhance the learning process by contributing to the development of the individual learner. She encourages research and the development of theoretical frameworks to rationalize effective deployment of service interventions in ODL programs. She recognizes (and decries) the market and economic forces that impinge upon the provision of student services in times of tight institutional budgets.

Croft, M. (1991). Report on round table on student support services (pp. 1-56). Vancouver, Canada: The Commonwealth of Learning.

This article reports the findings and recommendations of conferees from 12 Commonwealth countries to issues dealing with developing and deploying effective support services to distant learners. A keynote paper, summarized by Croft, describes the student support services field at the time, outlines issues, and raises questions that provide the basis for discussion. Reports from the field, summarized by Mills, illustrate the diversity of issues and challenges faced by d.e. professionals in various countries. Common principles of best practice are outlined. Technological advances in the decade since the conference have ameliorated many of the problems raised with delivery of services at a distance, at least in the industrialized Commonwealth countries.

Dillon, C.L., Gunawardena, C.N., and Parker, R. (1992). Learner support: The critical link in distance education. Distance Education, 13(1), 29-45.

By use of a survey instrument, the authors examine the effect of learner support services on actual learning outcomes and the attitudes of campus-based and distance learners in the Oklahoma Televised Instruction System. Results appear to confirm Garrison and Baynton’s (1987) assertion that " the role of the teacher/facilitator is of primary importance in the issue of support (p, 7)" and highlight the need to properly train faculty who teach at a distance. In general, distance students in the study did not feel at disadvantage compared to on-campus students. Problems with distance students’ access to printed materials delivered by courier illustrate practical concerns in mediating instruction at a distance. The authors cite the need for more comparative studies that might lead to the development of theory on supporting DE students.

Glennie, J. Towards learner-centered distance education in the changing South African context. In R. Mills, and A. Tait (Eds.), Supporting the learner in open and distance learning (pp. 19-33). London, UK: Pitman Publishing.

The article discusses post-Apartheid efforts to provide universal education and training to South Africans as a right. ODL is viewed as a primary means of provision with the objective of empowering life-long learning and self-directedness of the citizenry to improve the society. Attempts to systematically address learner needs and provide badly needed student services in conditions of privation and poor infrastructure are described. Institutions that are players in ODL–and there are several operating in SA–will need to collaborate with one another and with other organizations to overcome these difficulties.

Robinson, B. (1995). Research and pragmatism in learner support. In F. Lockwood (Ed.), Open and distance learning today (pp. 221-231). London, UK: Routledge.

The author asks whether research on student support services to date constitutes a field of knowledge that can inform the decision making of practitioners in the field to deal effectively with pragmatic issues. She cites areas of research and lists broad findings that can be helpful to practitioners, but warns that they may not be generalize-able due to the variety of highly individual circumstances of different institutions with different constituents and different goals. However, I found her systematic conceptualization of the components of student support (constituent elements, their configuration, and the interaction between them and learners) potentially useful in helping to develop theory, just as Moore’s discussion of how the elements of transactional distance interact has helped practitioners deal with issues of mediation of learning in differing circumstances.

Tait, A. (1988). Democracy in distance education and the role of tutorial and counseling services. Journal of Distance Education, 3(1), 95-99.

Tait hails ODL as the best practical method of evening the educational playing field and empowering learners. Thus he sees a relationship between the principles of ODL and democracy. However, he takes issue with the notion that mass-produced learning packets serve the cause of true learner autonomy–a notion aligned with the practice of democracy–unless learners are properly supported by tutors or counselors in the use of the learning materials. Proper support, according to Tait, involves applying the principles of adult learning professed by Malcolm Knowles (andragogy rather than traditional pedagogy). Like Dillon, Tait cites the work of Garrison and Baynton (1987) as the basis for the argument that interaction of a student with a properly trained person serving in a tutorial role is crucial to the learning process.

Tait, A. (1995). Student support in open and distance learning. In F. Lockwood (Ed.), Open and distance learning today (pp.232-241). London, UK: Routledge.

In advocating the use of system-based theories for designing, deploying, and evaluating support services to students at a distance, Tait enumerates the central concepts he believes practitioners ought to consider to achieve their aims. He cites examples where failure to understand the population to be served and their circumstances have produced unsuccessful results and provides a useful list of learner characteristics practitioners should consider in order to better understand the population they are seeking to serve. In considering budgeting d.e. programs, he is concerned with the need to balance economies of scale–achieved through large-scale production of course packets–with the need to individualize the learning process through the provision of student services. In the tension between differentiation and economy, he strongly favors individualizing the learning process.

Garland, M.R. (1995). Helping students achieve epistemological autonomy. In Sewart, D. (Ed.), 17th World Conference for Distance Education: One World Many Voices: Quality in Open and Distance Learning: Volume 2 (pp. 77-80). Milton Keynes, UK: International Council for Distance Education and The Open University.

Garland evaluates various learning theories and describes how they contribute to or inhibit learner self-determination in the education process. She finds that behavioral learning approaches, typically used in large-scale d.e. delivery systems, restrict learner autonomy because they tend to be highly directive and focus more on achieving a uniform level of subject matter understanding. Garland, like Knowles, favors learner-centered, cognitive learning approaches–constructivism, situated cognition, and problem solving–in that these approaches respect and build on the experience of the learner. They aim to achieve higher order, critical thinking, and the ability of learners to adapt their preconceptions using their new knowledge. Garland concludes by suggesting techniques for embedding constructivist learning approaches into curriculum design.

Holmberg, B. (1983). Guided didactic conversation in distance education. In D. Sewart, D. Keegan, and B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives (pp.114-122). London: Croom Helm.

Since 1960, Holmberg has argued that real education requires interaction between a learner and a teacher or teaching institution. He calls this "Guided didactic conversation." In this article Holmberg describes the characteristics of effective guided didactic conversation and relates theory to practice, advocating more or less interaction with students depending on their level of maturity and familiarity with the subject. He also cites more recent theories that support two-way conversation as essential to the process of active learning.

Keegan, D. (1986). Interaction and communication, (Chapter 6, pp.89-107). In Keegan, D., The foundations of distance education. Kent,UK.: Croom Helm.

Keegan does the novice a real service by introduces the reader to five writers whose works have emphasized the centrality of interaction and communication in distance education. 1) John Baath is concerned with the essential role of the tutor in supporting distant learners through two-way communication. He analyzed teaching models of seven theorists to determine how two-way communication is most useful depending on the amount of structure contained in a course. 2) Borje Holmberg’s writings on the guided didactic conversation are included within the context of his humanistic philosophy and his emphasis that individual learners need the support of the learning organization, although they learn individually. 3) John Daniel takes education by correspondence a step further than Baath and Holmberg by adding to the independent study aspect of distance education, interactivity in the form of group discussions and residential summer schools. Daniel argues that face-to-face interaction and course pacing contributes to higher rates of student success. 4) David Sewart advocates for provision of traditional support services for distance students. He introduces the notion of student service providers as intermediaries between the system and the individual student, ideally representing a continuity of concern students. 5) Kevin Smith goes one step beyond Daniel and Sewart in bringing the ideals of a traditional university to the distance setting. He takes a campus-based institution with a traditional faculty and extends it to distance learners, who are taught the same curriculum as students on campus by the same fulltime faculty.

Morgan, C., and Morris, G. The student view of tutorial support: Report of a survey of Open University Education students. Open Learning, 9(1), 22-33.

Gathering feedback is an essential element of evaluating the effectiveness of any system. The study reported in this article demonstrates the dedication of the OU organization and of the tutoring staff of the education curriculum in Wales to provide high-quality services for all distance students in the program. The study team meticulously contacted most active students individually by telephone and sent some questionnaires by post to gather their data where phone contact was not possible. The results indicated relatively high levels of satisfaction with tutoring support but also yielded information on where improvements could be made. All in all, the effort made by the tutoring staff to ensure quality is exemplary. With this level of staff commitment to quality, I am convinced students will be well served.

Relan A and Gillani B. J. (1997). Web-based instruction and the traditional classroom: Similarities and differences. In Khan, B. (Ed.), Web-based instruction (pp. 25–37). New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.

Relan and Gillani compare the characteristics of teacher-centered instruction with student-centered learning, particularly learning strategies enabled by the emergence of the World Wide Web. They argue that web-based instruction is more effective than traditional instruction because it empowers learners to explore on their own and to collaborate with others in learning communities. Therefore, it encourages a healthy, constructivist approach to learning, which better prepares students for lifelong learning and a future in which intelligent use of the Internet will be a necessity. The article is largely a critique of traditional classroom-based, teacher-centered instruction, which the authors find "largely devoid of cognitively powerful instructional strategies."

Romiszowski, A. (1997). Web-based distance learning and teaching: Revolutionary necessity or reaction to necessity? In Khan, B. (Ed.), Web-based instruction (pp. 91-111). New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.

The Internet is making vast amounts of information available, far more than we can manage casually. The author describes a vision of a system in which "knowledge workers" analyze and evaluate information, synthesize it, add value to it, and produce useful new knowledge for business and society. To prepare knowledge workers to deal with information that is growing exponentially, the author argues that education systems must de-emphasize knowledge acquisition and focus on developing and supporting students who know how to learn continuously and autonomously, think critically and solve problems creatively, both independently and in teams. Computer mediated communication and electronic performance support systems will enable these activities, according to the author.

Wolcott, L.L. (1995). The distance teacher as reflective practitioner. Educational Technology, January/February Issue, 39-43.

Traditional teachers venture into unfamiliar waters when they begin to teach at a distance. Wolcott advocates a reflective approach to the philosophy and practice of the profession to help traditional teachers prepare for the challenges arising from communicating effectively without being able to deal face-to-face with their students. Increased interpersonal distance, reduced interaction, loss of direct feedback, and interference in message transfer stemming from mediation of instruction are major concerns. The author poses questions that lead the teacher to reflect on differences in context, learners, and teaching methods that are crucial for distance teaching success.

Bowser, D., and Race, K. (1991). Orientation for distance education students: What is its worth? Distance Education, 12(1), 109-122.

This article describes research carried out by UCCQ in 1989 to evaluate students’ reactions to orientation programs held at study centers throughout Queensland and New South Wales. This first effort by UCCQ to see orientation from a student’s perspective yielded important information about what students value most and suggested changes to some longstanding practices. The institution used the information to target responses to the most pressing student needs and expectations identified in the study, thereby helping to ensure that tight resources were expended most appropriately. While it is impossible to generalize from the results of this study, UCCQ’s experience should encourage other institutions to undertake similar research as a valuable tool for evaluation and planning of their own programs.

Brindley, J.E., and Fage, J. (1991). Counselling in open learning: Two institutions face the future. Open Learning, 7(3), 12-19.

The first half of the article compares institutional structures and contextual differences that have historically affected provision of counseling support services at two ODL institutions–the UK Open University and Athabasca University in Canada. OU integrated tutor/counselors into the core of its instructional program and budget since the inception of the institution. This strategy has allowed the OU counseling program to survive and evolve as the needs of students and the institution have changed over the years. Contrastingly, AU’s program of counseling services developed incrementally as a professionally specialized adjunct to instruction that was never fully integrated it into the instructional program budget. Consequently, the AU program proved to be politically vulnerable as funding sources eroded. The second half of the article highlights the growing need in modern ODL for new counseling services that assist students in coordinating credits earned at various institutions into comprehensive programs and for dealing effectively with issues of access and support for diverse student populations. Targeted approaches based on institutional research and systematic evaluations are needed to respond to growing d.e. enrollments and shrinking budgets.

Manning, E. (1997). The preparation of students for distance learning: Two very different approaches from a wider European perspective. In Tait, A. (Ed.), Collected Conference Papers, The Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning, (pp. 114-119). Cambridge, UK.: The Open University.

The need for and benefits of providing students new to distance learning the opportunity to become oriented to the process before study commences are demonstrated by this description of two preparatory exercises undertaken by the OU. Bringing together new distance students in a residential setting to interact with each other in person over the course of a weekend, during which they share the experience of confronting challenges typically encountered in distance learning, apparently helps them overcome their insecurities and increases both study skills and self-confidence. Virtual orientation presented over the Internet proved somewhat problematic and was less effective in helping new students identify with the institution and with each other. The special needs of students in remote geographic areas and those studying in a non-native language are highlighted in both exercises.

Nillson, V. (1989). Voluntary academic assessment to enhance independent learning. In Tait, A. (Ed.), Conference Papers, Interaction and Independence: Student Support in Distance Education and Open Learning, (pp. 167-181). Cambridge, U.K.: The Open University.

Nillson presents a beautifully concise and convincing treatment of the argument that adult learners, as consumers of education, are responsible for their own success. In this conceptualization, the role of teachers and student support providers in their interaction with students is clearly to encourage their continual movement toward independent learning. Nillson describes Athabasca University’s Voluntary Assessment Program, which helps students determine their readiness (in writing, reading, and mathematics) to undertake distance study. The institution endeavors to make assessment opportunities available when students are self-motivated to access them, which is consistent with the philosophy of student responsibility for success. Note to self: the difference in the use of the term "consumer" in this article to indicate active student responsibility is nearly opposite of the US notion of consumer as a paying customer for a good or service and, therefore, entitled to the benefits paid for.

O'Rourke, J. (1995). A piece of the jigsaw: Student advising in distance education. In Tait, A. (Ed.), Collected conference papers, Sixth Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning, (pp.136-145). Cambridge, UK.: The Open University. Two faculty members who also advise students in distance education describe their advising roles (providing concerned, personal contact; clarifying rules and options; advocating for individuals as needed; providing career guidance). The point is made that advising should be considered an integral part of the system that supports the learning process; however, it appears it is the ad hoc, personal volition of the two women interviewed–not necessarily an institutional commitment to a system of student support–that accounts for the provision of support services to their students. The reader is left with the impression that the voluntary effort of these two humanistic educator/practitioners is offered more or less as a free good to their students but is not explicitly expected of them or of other faculty as standard provision in their institutions.

Phillips, M., and Scott, P. (1999). Multimedia advice, guidance and counselling on the Web: A prototype learner's guide. In Tait, A. (Ed.), Collected Conference Papers, The Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning, (pp. 121-130). Cambridge, UK.: The Open University.

This article describes a promising new Internet-mediated project of UKOU to deliver information and student support services as a complement to OU’s emerging web-based learning systems. The prototype, which uses streaming media including audio and video, responds to increasing service expectations of online students and is capable of engaging and communicating with these students more effectively than is possible through the print medium alone. The author is optimistic that the prototype system will be scalable to serve the fast-growing population of students who have access to modern computers with Internet connection.

Rhys, S. (1988). Study skills and personal development. Open Learning, 3(2), 40-42. An experienced tutor-counselor and course tutor at UKOU, the author has developed a holistic conception of study skill development as personal development, much as Garland described learner development in terms of achieving epistemological autonomy. Rhys sees studying as a multi-dimensional process, citing a complex of personal, environmental, and subject matter related factors that affect student success. In such a complex, there can be no formula for student success. She suggests that counseling practitioners need to let students find their own ways of achieving autonomy and recommends a collaborative, flexible working partnership model that provides guidance as needed but gives the student plenty of room to grow.

Simpson, O. (1992). Specifying student support services in the OU - the so-called Student Charter. Open Learning, 7(2), 57-59.

The article describes the efforts of East Anglia OU to improve student satisfaction with and use of its counseling services. The institution developed a charter to inform students of their rights to service and distributes the document to students to encourage them to take the initiative to contact tutors. Given that half the students in the satisfaction survey felt somewhat alienated from their counselors, the mere publication of the charter may not be an adequate solution, when substantive efforts to contact shy or reticent students seems to be what is really needed. The author concludes by citing the inadequacy of the notion of student as customer.

Granger, D., and Benke, M. (1998). Supporting learners at a distance from inquiry through completion. In C.C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education, (pp. 127-137). Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing.

This is a straightforward, commonsense presentation of basic principles every distance education institution worth its salt should know and abide by. The principles are illustrated with useful examples from leading d.e. institutions. The point is that institutions exist to serve the needs of their learners. To do so effectively institutions must know a great deal about their learners; faculty must be trained and supported to deal with students’ diverse needs; and all administrative systems must be geared to meet the practical necessities of enrollment and study to make programs fully accessible to the learners.

King, T.J. (1995). The identification of high dropout risk distance education students by the analysis of student records data. In Sewart, D. (Ed.), 17th World Conference for Distance Education: One World Many Voices: Quality in Open and Distance Learning: Volume 2 (pp. 98-101). Milton Keynes, UK: International Council for Distance Education and The Open University.

This is a simple, useful study that illustrates how an institution can make use of standard information from its student records system to learn about its students and plan for their success. The study of registrants for a beginning course in real estate permitted Australian College for Technical and Further Education, Off-campus center at Box Hill to verify the validity of program prerequisites and to learn that student characteristics, such as years of school completed, employment status, age, and gender, were significant factors in predicting persistence in the program. The study demonstrates that, by comparing demographic characteristics of registrants with their success rates in specific programs, an institution can determine which students tend to be at risk and can design interventions for future enrollees accordingly.

Phillips, S.E. (1995). The Commonwealth of Learning student record management system. In Sewart, D. (Ed.), 17th World Conference for Distance Education: One World Many Voices: Quality in Open and Distance Learning: Volume 2 (pp. 437-440). Milton Keynes, UK: International Council for Distance Education and The Open University. Readers who want to learn about the basic requirements for a computer supported student records management system will appreciate this article, which describes the system requirements and development of a generic, PC-based system intended to be used nearly anywhere in the world. The article leaves little to the imagination for those with non-technical backgrounds, but is too basic for system development professionals. The fact that such a useful, basic system was developed at all is a tribute to COL and the principle of collaboration among institutions. A question remains after reading the article as to what makes the SRMS database uniquely suited for ODL institutions (p. 438) because the system’s features support the same records management functions essential to the operations of traditional institutions.

Stephens, K., Unwin, L., and Bolton, N. (1997). The use of libraries by postgraduate distance learning students: A mismatch of expectations. Open Learning, 12(3), 25-33.

In describing a major study of library usage by post-graduate distance learners, this article cites a treasure trove of research on the library and information resource needs of distance learners. The study that is the subject of this article demonstrates that library provision, especially by host institutions, generally does not serve the needs of the fast-growing population of distance learners. Distance education providers too often assume, incorrectly, that in most cases course packets are self-contained units so that distance learners will not seek library access. However, access to materials is shown to be a major issue for the learner. Geographic distance from a university library can be a significant barrier to access, particularly by part time students who work and have families. Consequently, many of these students rely on local public libraries for access to research materials, even though these libraries are not suitably equipped to support university research. The authors call for consultation among stakeholders (including students) to redress library support issues. Oddly, online library provision is not discussed.

Wong, A.T. (1997). Valuing diversity: Prior learning assessment and open learning. In Tait, A. (Ed.), Collected Conference Papers, The Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning, (pp. 208-216). Cambridge, UK.: The Open University.

This article discusses how and why Prior Learning Assessment (PLA) is becoming a major tool used by a growing number of educational institutions to evaluate the life and work experiences of individual adult learners for the purpose of awarding college credit. Methods for assessment currently in use (subject examinations, evaluation of course and program equivalencies for transfer, and portfolio evaluation) are described. The author makes the case that PLA is a natural complement to the philosophy and goals of open learning programs. She cites examples of programs currently being run in Canada that convincingly demonstrate the potential of PLA for supporting workforce development. Reducing time to degree and related costs are major benefits of PLA to individual learners.